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mybb@mybb.ru (irmeghnugz) — Thu, 08 Dec 2022 13:46:34 +0300

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mybb@mybb.ru (tonya) — Tue, 02 Mar 2010 18:38:20 +0300

The advantages of the geographical position of Great Britain

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mybb@mybb.ru (Svetlana) — Thu, 18 Dec 2008 18:55:33 +0300

V.A. Tropinin

V.A. Tropinin (1776-1857)

Tropinin is one of the greatest masters of the Russian portrait. Tropinin was bora in the village of Karpovka in Novgorod province in a family of serfs. Tropinin's work is democratic and progressive. He is one of the most original and charming figures in the history of Russian art. His biography is an unusual one. Up to the age of 47. he was one of Count Morkov's serfs. According to the whims of his owner he worked in succession as a butler, a pastry cook and manager of the count's estate in the Ukraine. It was with great difficulty that he entered the Academy of Arts in Petersburg. He studied 'in Shchukin's class in 1798 - 1804. Forced to interrupt^ his studies at the Academy. Tropinin developed his skill independently, constantly painting from life. He reveals a poetic attitude to the world. The portrait studies of the count's children, the Morkov brothers and Natalia Morkova, show a light tonality. The "Portrait of the Artist's Son A.V.Tropinin" (1818) is executed with warmth and serious attitude to the world of childhood.

From the 1820s the artist's life, was completely linked with Moscow. He produced portraits of some eminent figures in Russian culture. But the most popular picture ever created by Tropinin is probably his portrait of Alexander Pushkin for which the poet sat in 1827. The remarkable likeness was stressed by contemporaries. The portrait reflects the powerful mind and inspiration of the poet. In 1823, after receiving his freedom, he was made an associate by the Council of the Academy and in 1824 awarded the title of academician. After his liberation from serfdom he went to live in Moscow. He is considered to be the founder of the 19th century Moscow school of painting, which took themes and subjects from real life.

Visitors to the Tretyakov Gallery often stop to admire Tropinin's remarkable picture "The Lace-make.n> ( 1 823). \ This was the first Russian portrait to depict the city working girl. Tropinin once said that he liked to . paint people "at a happy moment of their life". Tropinin fr"nd pleasure in painting young and attractive faces: young Ukrainiar weavers, lace- makers, goldthread embroideresses, young men with gu4af?cod boys with flutes. In Russia it was he who showed the way to the new i fistic art as "opposed to the abstract classical trend favoured by the Academ> of Arts.

1. Head of a Boy (Portrait of the Artitst's Son), 1818, 40,4 X 3�

2. Lace-maker, 1823, 74,7 X 59,3

3. Alexander Pushkin, 1827

4. The Guitar Player, 4823, 82,5 X 64

5. Self-portrait at a Window with a View of the Kremlin, 1846

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mybb@mybb.ru (Svetlana) — Thu, 18 Dec 2008 18:51:02 +0300

Weather and climate

Climate is the weather a certain place has over a long period of time. Climate has a very important influence on plants, animals and humans and is different in different parts of the world. Some scientists think that the world is becomming hotter. If you compare Moscow winter and summer temperatures at the beginning of our century and at its end you will see that climate has really changed. Winters have become warmer. Sometimes there is little snow in January, and there were winters when it rained on the New Year's Eve. Many people say that it is so because of the greenhouse effect. During the last 100 years people have produced a lot of carbon dioxide. This gas in the atmosphere works like glass in a greenhouse. It lets heat get in, but it doesn't let much heat get out. So the atmosphere becomes warmer. Where does the carbon dioxide come from? People and animals breathe in oxygen, and breathe out carbon dioxide. We produce carbon dioxide when we burn things. Trees take this gas from the air, and produce oxygen. But in the last few years, people have cut down and burn big areas of rainforest. This means there are fewer trees, and, of course, more carbon dioxide! As we see the climate in different parts of the world changes a little from year to year. These changes can be dangerous for our planet, which needs protection. Earth is millions of years old, much older than the humans. We know many of its secrets. Yet there is still much to learn.

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mybb@mybb.ru (Svetlana) — Wed, 17 Dec 2008 22:31:11 +0300

Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin

Soviet cosmonaut and first human to fly in space. Gagarin flew into space aboard Vostok 1 on April 12, 1961, and made one orbit of the earth.

Gagarin was born in the Smolensk region of the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). His family was displaced during World War II (1939-1945) and moved to the town of Gzhatsk in the northeastern part of Smolensk. In 1949 Gagarin began his higher education at a manufacturing trade school in Lyubertsy, a town outside of Moscow. In 1951 he trained as a metalworker at the industrial technical school in Saratov, which is southeast of Moscow. While he was in Saratov, he joined a flying club and learned to fly airplanes. His instructor recommended him to the air force, and Gagarin began attending the Soviet Air Force cadet training school at Chkalov (now Orenburg) in Russia in 1955. He graduated from the academy with high distinction in 1957, shortly after the launch of Sputnik 1.

Gagarin applied for the six-week cosmonaut screening process in 1960 with just 230 hours of flying experience. He and 19 others were selected to become cosmonauts. Of these 20 men, 12 eventually completed space flights. Gagarin and fellow cosmonaut Gherman Titov, front-runners in their class, were both contenders for the Vostok 1 flight.

Gagarin was chosen to fly aboard Vostok 1 just four days before the launch date. He boarded the Vostok craft roughly 90 minutes before lift-off on April 12, 1961. On the pad, he listened to piped-in music and received word that he had been promoted to the rank of major. There was at least one delay in the countdown, due to a faulty valve. At 9:07 AM, Vostok 1, using the radio name CEDAR, lifted off for its 108-minute flight. Gagarin was exposed to about six times the normal force of gravity on the earth during the launch phase and about eight times the normal force of gravity during the re-entry. During his one orbit around the earth, he ate and drank (no one had ever done this in weightlessness before), monitored the capsule's systems, and evaluated his ability to observe features on the earth (he had no camera). The capsule's control panels were locked, since everything was either automated or controlled from the ground, but Gagarin had the code to unlock the controls in a sealed envelope in case there was an emergency. Vostok 1 landed in a field near Saratov, observed only by cows and a few peasants. Information that emerged in the late 1980s about the Soviet space program suggests that Gagarin actually bailed out of Vostok 1 at an altitude of about 6 km (about 4 mi) and descended under a parachute separately from the capsule.

A worldwide hero's welcome awaited Gagarin when he returned to Moscow. He was appointed a deputy of the Supreme Soviet, awarded the Order of Lenin, and named hero of the Soviet Union. The fanfare eventually began to subside, and he again became active in cosmonaut training. Gagarin was on the backup crew for Soyuz 1 and reportedly was a leading candidate for the planned Soviet piloted lunar landing. He was killed on a routine jet proficiency flight in March 1968.

Gagarin's ashes were interred in the Kremlin wall. He and his historical flight are remembered officially in many ways. A titanium obelisk, which reaches a height of 40 m (120 ft), was erected at the Vostok 1 landing site. The town of Gzhatsk was renamed Gagarin. A crater on the far side of the moon is named for Gagarin. Also, the main center for cosmonaut training at Star City, Russia, is called the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center.

Scotland

mybb@mybb.ru (Svetlana) — Wed, 17 Dec 2008 22:25:42 +0300

Scotland

Scotland is a land of mountains, wild moorlands, narrow valleys and plains. The Highlands of Scotland are among the oldest mountains in the world. The highest of them is Ben Nevis. The lakes of Scotland are called "lochs". The beautiful Loch Lomond with its thirty islands is the largest. One third of the people in Scotland live in or near its capital Edinburgh and its great industrial center Glasgow. Scotland is a country with the deep national traditions. Scotland is a part of England but Scotland is not England. Scot's laws are different from the English. Scotland has its own administration of government, which is centered in Edinburgh. It has its own national heroes. These heroes fought in endless battles against the England. Scotland has its own national drink, national musical instruments, national dances, songs, poetry, traditions, food and sports, even education and manners. There is the Old Scotland and the New Scotland. New Scotland is a land of steel and ships, coal and power, of factories and great ports, of modern literature and music. The Old Scotland is the land of ballads, legendary heroes defending its independence, legendary knights, outlaws, beautiful queens, brave and cruel kings. And the shadow of Old Scotland has its place in the New Scotland. There is a national dress of Scotland, the kilt. It is the best walking dress yet invented by men: there is up 5 meters of material in it. It is airy, leaves the legs free from climbing: it stands the rain for hours before it gets wet through; it is warm for a cold day and cool for warm one. And what is more, if a highlander is caught in the mountains by night, he has just to unfasten his kilt and wrap it around him. 5 meters of warm wool will help him to sleep comfortably enough at night. The kilt is only worn by men and it is a relic of the time when the clan system existed in the Scottish Highlands. The clan was like a very large family and everyone had the same family mane like McDonald or McGeorge ("Mac" means the "son of"). The clan had its particular territory and was governed by a chieftain. Each clan had its own tartan which both men and women wore. Now people can buy tartans ,which are new designed in the shops. They are different from the ones worn by the clans long ago. The old fabrics which were made from local sheep's wool disappeared and the secret of making them is lost. But the machine-making tartans are very popular. The thistle is a national emblem of Scotland.

Wales

mybb@mybb.ru (Svetlana) — Wed, 17 Dec 2008 22:24:19 +0300

Wales

Wales is a country of lakes and mountains. Its about the half the size of Switzerland, and it has a population of two and three quarter million. On the north of Wales is some of the most beautiful scenery in the British islands, the Snowdon mountain. Snowdon is Britain's second highest mountain. Wales is an not independent nation. In 1292, the English king, Edward, invaded Wales and built fourteen huge castles to control the Welsh people. His son, Edward, became the first prince of Wales, since then all the kings and queens of England have given their eldest sons the title, Prince of Wales. Prince Charles became the twenty-first Prince of Wales. Although the English have ruled Wales for many centuries, Wales still has its own flag, culture, and, above all, its own language. In the towns and villages of North Wales, many people speak English only as a second language. Their first language is Welsh. In Llanberis, a small town at the foot of Snowdon, eighty-six per cent people speak Welsh as their first language. At the local primary school children have nearly all their lessons in Welsh. The children should be bilingual by the time that they are eleven years old. It is not a problem for children to learn two languages at the same time. Children have insight into two cultures, so have all the folk tales of two languages. Children like Welsh because in Welsh you spell things just how you say them, in English there are more silent letters. Welsh is one of the oldest languages in Europe. Its a Celtic language, like Breton in France, Gaelic in Ireland, or Gaelic in Scotland. Two and a half thousand years before these languages were spoken in many parts of Europe. They died out when the Romans invaded these areas, but some of them survived in the northwest corner of Europe. But over the last hundred years the number of Welsh-speaker has fallen very quickly. Now only twenty per cent of Welsh people speak Welsh. Here are some of the reasons for the decline. In the nineteenth century people thought that Welsh an uncivilized language. If you wanted to be successful in life you had to learn English, the language of the British Empire. So in many schools children were forbidden to speak Welsh. At the beginning of the twentieth century many English and Irish people moved to South Wales to work in the coalmines and steel works. They did not learn Welsh. People, especially young people, moved away from the Welsh-speaking villages and farms of north and west Wales to look for work in the big towns and cities, so the Welsh-speaking communities became much smaller. In the 1960s and 1970s many English people bought holiday cottages in villages in Wales. Most of them did not learn Welsh. This also pushed up the price of houses so that local Welsh-speaking people cold not afford them. English comes into every Welsh home trough the television, the radio, newspapers, books, etc. There are Welsh-language TV and radio stations, but far fever than English ones. And now there is cable and satellite TV, too-in English, of course! The decline has now stopped, because a lot has been done. Road signs, bilingual documentation, and there is a Welsh language act. The future of Welsh is uncertain. The problem is that Welsh has to survive next door to English, and, as we all know, English is a very successful language.

Wales

mybb@mybb.ru (Svetlana) — Wed, 17 Dec 2008 22:23:49 +0300

Wales

England

mybb@mybb.ru (Svetlana) — Wed, 17 Dec 2008 22:22:42 +0300

English character

Foreigners have many ideas about what the English like. For example, some people say the English are always cold and reserved, this means that they don't talk much to strangers, and don't show much emotion. A reserved person never tells you anything about himself. But the people of the North and West of Britain are much less reserved than those of the South and East. Some believe the English eat porridge for breakfast and read The Times every day. Many Australians believe that the English always whine and call them "whining poms". The Welsh, Scottish and Irish also have a thing or two to say about what they think the English are like with reference to the British Empire. And, of course, the English themselves have plenty of ideas about what they are, such as being proud of having one of the oldest parliament in the world.

English people are famous for their habit of politeness. It is considered polite to give up one's seat to a woman who is standing, to open a door for her, carry things for her, and so on. Most British people expect the person in front of them to hold the door open for them. People think you are rude, if you don't do this. Most British people queue when they are waiting for a bus or waiting to be served in a shop. But during the rush hour, when a bus or train arrives, people often push forward to make sure they get on. This is called jumping the queue. British people keep their old traditions and are very proud of them. They are famous for their sense of humour. English people show great love for animals. And, of course, English people are fond of sports. Many continentals think life is a game; the English think cricket is a game. To many Englishmen cricket is both a game and a standard of behaviour. When they consider something unfair, they say "That isn't cricket".

The traditional love of English people for tea is well known. They like to drink tea with milk. They have their five-o'clock tea not only at home or in offices, but also in tea-rooms and tea-shops, which can be found in every town.

A nation is born from its land, its history, its art, its traditions and its institutions. These things work together to make people what they are. But above all, a nation is made up of people, and although there are things they all share, all of those people are different. We can say there is still a "British nation," and one of the most characteristic features of Englishmen is their traditions, which they respect, and which they have kept for centuries. The traditions don't only accumulate the experience and wisdom of many generations, but they bring some stability into the rapidly changing world.

Great Britian

mybb@mybb.ru (Svetlana) — Wed, 17 Dec 2008 22:16:27 +0300

The British Parliament

The British Parliament is the oldest in the world. It originated in th 12th century as Witenagemot, the body of wise councellers whom the King needed to consult pursuing his policy. The British Parliament consists of the House of Lords and the House of Commons and the Queen as its head. The House of Commons plays the major role in law-making. It consists of Members of Parliament (called MPs for short). Each of them represents an area in England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland. MPs are elected either at a general election or at a by-election following the death or retirement. Parliamentary elections are held every 5 years and it is the Prime Minister who decides on the exact day of the election. The minimum voting age is 18. And the voting is taken by secret ballot. The election campaign lasts about 3 weeks, The British parliamentary system depends on politicals parties. The party which wins the majority of seats forms the goverment and its leader usually becomes Prime Minister. The Prime Minister chooses about 20 MPs from his party to become the cabinet of ministers. Each minister is responsible for a particular area in the goverment. The second largest party becomes the official opposition with its own leader and "shadow cabinet". The leader of the opposition is a recognized post in the House of Commons. The parliament and the monarch have different roles in the goverment and they only meet together on symbolic occasions, such as coronation of a new monarch or the opening of the parliament. In reality, the House of Commons is the one of three which has true power. The House of Commons is made up of six hundred and fifty elected members, it is presided over by the speaker, a member acceptable to the whole house. MPs sit on two sides of the hall, one side for the governing party and the other for the opposition. The first 2 rows of seats are occupied by the leading members of both parties (called "front benches") The back benches belong to the rank-and-life MPs. Each session of the House of Commons lasts for 160-175 days. Parliament has intervals during his work. MPs are paid for their parliamentary work and have to attend the sittings. As mention above, the House of Commons plays the major role in law making. The procedure is the following: a proposed law ("a bill") has to go through three stages in order to become an act of parliament, these are called "readings". The first reading is a formality and is simply the publication of the proposal. The second reading involves debate on the principles of the bill, it is examination by parliamentary committy. And the third reading is a report stage, when the work of the committy is reported on to the house. This is usually the most important stage in the process. When the bill passes through the House of Commons, it is sent to the House of Lords for discussion, when the Lords agree it, the bill is taken to the Queen for royal assent, when the Queen sings the bill, it becomes act of the Parliament and the Law of the Land. The House of Lords has more than 1000 members, although only about 250 take an active part in the work in the house. Members of this Upper House are not elected, they sit there because of their rank, the chairman of the House of Lords is the Lord Chancellor. And he sits on a special seat, called "WoolSack" The members of the House of Lords debate the bill after it has been passed by the House of Commons. Some changes may be recommended and the agreement between the two houses is reached by negotiations.

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